Mangal Kavyas: Bengal’s Performative Folklore that Humanised Gods for the Common Man
Article by Debashrita Dash
Edited by Aashika Prabhakar
Between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries, the cultural landscape of Bengal witnessed the emergence of a distinctive literary tradition: the Mangal Kavyas, or benediction poems. These expansive narrative compositions celebrated the virtues of regional deities while drawing on episodes from everyday life, producing texts that were both devotional and instructive, as well as entertaining. As a hybrid of performance, ritual, and literature, the kavyas became a conduit through which Bengal’s agrarian and artisanal communities articulated their aspirations, anxieties, and sense of belonging.
Ranging across themes of triumph, anger, sorrow, and moral resolve, these poems humanised divinities and rendered religious practice an accessible, communal experience. Their survival through recitations, village theatre, and other folk expressions in rural Bengal, and to a lesser extent, urban settings, attests to the enduring appeal of stories that link sacred presence to relatable protagonists.
The ascendancy of the Mangal Kavyas was inseparable from the social and political ferment of their time. Periods of invasion, economic distress, and shifting religious affiliations spurred rural populations to seek solace and meaning in narrative forms. Within these benediction poems, divine figures and everyday relatable protagonists converged to craft fables exploring justice and injustice, devotion and scepticism, love and loss, and the enduring resilience of community. In giving voice to such concerns, the kavyas stand as vivid records of Bengal’s historical imagination.
Although there are a number of Mangal Kavyas written on various local deities, the popular ones are about thewarrior/forestgoddess(Chandi Mangal), theserpent goddess (Manasa Mangal), thegod of justice and healing (Dharma Mangal), the goddess of food and prosperity(Annada Mangal), etc.
Unlike the distant deities of Sanskritic traditions, these pre-Aryan gods and goddesses possessed human flaws and virtues, closely tied to the daily lives of farmers, traders, fishermen and artisans.
Voices Behind the Mangalkavyas
The earliest composer of Manasamangal might have been Kana Haridatta (13th century), whose name has a reference in the works of Vijay Gupta and Purosottam (15th century). Some other popular renditions are as follows: Bipradas Pipilai’s Manasavijaya, Narayandeb’s Padmapuran, and Ketakadas Kshemananda’s Manasar Bhasan.
In regards to Chandimangal, Kavikankan Mukundaram Chakravarti remains the most prominent poet. Divided in three parts, the text begins with Deba Khanda (the divine part) which talks about the quarrels between Shiva’s two wives: Sati and Uma and Uma’s descent to the earth as Chandi to popularise her glory; the story is further divided into Akhetik Khanda (The Hunter’s Part) and Banik Khanda (The Merchant’s Part). Here, the protagonists, irrespective of their social status, suffer setbacks and trials along their path to triumph because of Chandi’s grace. Some other popular poets of the time were: Madhav Acharya (16th Century) and Manik Datta, Dvija Ramdev (17th century), among others.
Chandimangal patachitra
Several poets have contributed to composing Mangalkavyas, thus providing it a constantly evolving nature and making it difficult to trace the origins of these poems. Some Kavyas depict a single tale, such as Manasamangal, while others offer a collection of tales associated with a single deity, like Chandimangal.
Manasamangal recounts the journey of the serpent goddess, Manasa to godhood, her face- off with ChandSadagar, her wrath, and the turmoil of Behula, her devotee and Chand’s daughter-in-law.
Manasa, the neglected daughter of Shiva, is denied the status of a god in Heaven until she obtains an offering from ChandSadagar, an affluent merchant and ardent devotee of Shiva, who hates Manasa for her association with serpents. The story unfolds with her wrath and reaches a close with her ultimate victory. The celestial performers take birth as Chand’s son and daughter in law. Behula, the daughter-in-law, struggles to safeguard her husband’s life. And at the cost of sailing with her husband’s dead body to Heaven to resurrect him, Behula becomes a symbol of the ideal wife and of womanhood.
Anatomy of Mangalkavyas
A Mangalkavya is generally divided into four parts. The first part is the Bandana, a salutation to various deities and venerable figures, suggesting an effort to assimilate various faiths. In the second part, the poet explains the reason for composing the epic. In this part, the poet introduces himself and explains how inspiration struck him- often in a dream or by divine command. The third part, the Deba Khanda, depicts the establishment of a relationship between the indigenous deity with its popular Aryan form. It is interesting to note that God Shiva is more or less related to the deity, as his wife (Chandi/Annada- manifestation of Shakti), daughter (Manasa), or himself (Dharma- vernacular form). In spite of this relationship, they emerge as opposing forces, which can be concluded from the pride of the Shiva devotees (primarily the antagonists of the poems), though Shiva naturally tends to be neutral. The fourth part, the Nara Khanda, contains the main narrative which is generally about a celestial being cursed and expelled from heaven, his/her subsequent reincarnation as a human being, his activities on earth as a human being, his/her woes and worries. A local, guardian deity emerges to help in times of/ a moment of distress and finally, the assertion of the local deity’s godhood and the fulfillment of his/her goals.
The poems are typically written in the form of songs (panchali) sung by professional singers (mangal gayak) backed by a male chorus (dohar) during the ritual worship of the deity. The kavyas are written for the most part in the simple payar metre, a couplet form with the rhyme scheme- (aa bb). In some poems, a combination of payar metre and Tripadi metre (a couplet containing three verses or stanzas, and these stanzas are formed based on meter. In this rhythm, the number of lines in each verse is three: (aab ccb).
An example of the consecutive usage of Payar and Tripadi metres can be seen in the Manasamangal poem by Ketakadas Kshemananda. This particular segment depicts the wrath of Manasa, the serpent goddess, towards the merchant Chand after he had refused to worship her:
….
[Payar]
পুষ্প পান দিয়া দেবী তার প্রতি, বলে (a)
চাদ বেণের সাত ডিঙ্গা ডুবাইবে জল্লে ॥ (a)
দেবীর আদেশ পেয়ে কাদশ্মিনী ধায় (b)
বিপাকে মজিল চাঁদ কেতকাতে গায় ॥(b)
[Tripadi]
দেবীর আজ্ঞায় (c) হনুমান ধায় (c)
শীঘ্র লয়ে মেঘগণ ।(d)
পুষ্কর দুষ্কর (e) আইল সত্বর (e)
করিল ঝড় বর্ষণ ॥ (d)
(Das, 1885)
[The goddess gives him flowers and betel leaves and orders him to sink the seven ships of the merchant Chand in the water, Ketaka sings about the distresses of Chand. (Ketaka is another name of Manasa, and also that of the poet. Here it is most likely the poet)]
[By the goddess’s order Hanuman goes with the clouds and soon the storms and rainfall are brought down.]
These poems were believed to be sung in the Mangal, Basanta, Mallar, Sri, Kaushiki Ragas among others. (Bhowmick, 2025)
Chouko pat on popular folklore Manasamangal
The poems were sung as they were written in the Bengali dialects. The village singers would narrate the stories by singing with or without patachitra. However, in modern scenarios, the jatra/ play, dance, and song adaptations are performed according to the will of the performer, mostly in the modern Bengali language. There are no rigid rules. In the border areas of Odisha-Bengal, Jatra performances are organised based on common deities found in the area and performed in the local dialect. In the modern era, Mangal Kavyas inspire and become sources for folk performances. Unfortunately, the original singing tradition accompanied with patachitra (Pater gaan) has become a declining art.
Patachitra depicting scenes from ChandimangalA Chitrakar singing Manasamangal Pater Gaan, scene from Behula’s wedding night when her husband is bitten by a snake.
An interplay of faith and local beliefs
In Mangal Kavyas, Hindu puranic themes blend with Buddhist beliefs and indigenous practices. In some narratives, one can even trace the absorption of tribal deities into the larger Hindu Pantheon, where folk goddess Chandi– perhaps the Chandi Bonga, as worshipped by the Oraon tribe, was gradually assimilated into Shaktism. The linkages of Dharma Thakur with prominent deities like Shiva, Narayan Yama, Surya, etc are another example. This particular deity has been connected to various Kashmiri, Parsi, Austric tribes and also in later phases of Buddhism ( Ray, 2022).
The poetic project of these works not only made these local spirits achieve the status of godhood but also helped them secure a place amongst revered Indian divinities. The Mangal Kavyas also served as a medium for the Brahmanical elite caste to prevent the conversion of lower-class Hindus.
With recurrent invasions by the Turks, the Mughals, the Portuguese and the British, along with the advent of globalisation, the Brahmanical order faced a serious challenge of conversion of lower caste folks. Especially tribal communities like Dom, Kahar, Bagdi, Munda, Santhal, to name a few (Ray, 2022), as the former’s power and assertion had normally looked down upon the latter’s myths and deities.
Hence, the rituals of the lower caste made a space in the mainstream. This was perhaps done partly to showcase unity among Hindus, more focus on the pantheistic aspects, and partly to reassert Brahmanical dominance as a counter to the rise of other religions. This amalgamation and acceptance had a profound effect. It created a sense of pride, laying the foundation for identity, cultural belonging, and the growing spirit of nationalism amongst Bengalis irrespective of caste and class differences.
The socio-economic undercurrents behind the Kavyas
The 16th to 17th century Bengal saw the rule of Baro Bhuyans, the Mughal Empire, as well as semi-independent Nawabs and Portuguese traders. Urbanisation brought long-distance trade and commercial routes, connecting local merchants with markets across the Indian Ocean. The presence of some foreign words (Arabic and Urdu, especially) and dialects in some Mangal Kavyas affirms this global exposure and exchange. For example, as depicted in Ghanatam Chakraborty’s Shri Dharmamangal, a segment about the atrocities of a notorious tiger who kept attacking and eating humans irrespective of castes and religions, including Mir Miyans, who also kept complaining in the Mughal court:
“মীর মিয়া মোগল মহলে দিল দাগা
বাদী বলে ফতিমা বিবি ফুফায় খেলে বাঘা। ”
“MirMiyanMughalmahale dilo daaga
Baadi bole fatimabibifufay khele baagha”
(Chakraborty, 1883)
The trading background permeated the Kavyas in the form of the central characters like Dhanpati, Srimanta, Chand etc and their struggles in the world of commerce. By weaving mercantile anxieties in the narratives, the poets gave voice to the rising class of traders and moneylenders in Bengal’s economy where success was seen as contingent upon divine favour. For instance, the dream of social mobility and economic shifts, such as- a hunter becoming a king by divine grace (Kalketu’s rise to kingship in Akhetik Khanda) and the destruction of wealth due to divine wrath (Dhanapati’s destruction of fortune in Banik Khanda, Chand’s misfortune in Manasamangal).
The Changing Faces of Mangalkavyas
Prominent East Bengali historians Abdul Karim and M. R Tarafdar viewed the term Mangal probably as Mongol or Mughal, indicating the presence of Turkic/Mughal rulers and merchants in contemporary society. The invasion and violence brought about by these ethnic groups might have led to the narrative of Mangal daitya, a demon killed by Chandi, whose defeat somehow symbolised the victory of these local beliefs in the face of prevalent cultural and political threats (Chatterjee, 2013). Thus, these are not simply “auspicious poems” but also “victory poems”. These poems, time and again, offered the rural masses a sense of identity and unity against discrimination and propelled a sense of nationalism into them, intentionally or unintentionally.
A Reflection of Womanhood
Most Mangal Kavyas are about female deities in various forms of nature- A river goddess, warrior goddess, goddess of the forest etc. The fight for their own apotheosis not only symbolises the battle against Brahminical dominance but also the survival of nature, and the establishment of an ideal female figure. The condition of women in the 13th to 18th centuries was not stable, often being subjected to abuse at the hands of landlords, pirates, and upper-class elites. The female characters of these novels suffered the regular ordeals of human beings despite receiving divine grace. Shiva, being the primal representation of manhood, here becomes the opposing force against these mother goddesses, unlike his usual ShivaShakti or Ardhanarishwar manifestations. Thus, the prominent antagonists are males and mostly emerge as the devotees of Shiva and no other god. The protagonists are female, and they fight to ensure victory for themselves and their Istadevata. That is why instances like Khullana’s plea for her son and husband (Banik Khanda) and Behula’s dance in the court of Indra to resurrect her dead husband (Manasamangal) become a symbol of the Ideal woman, who is strong, resilient, and loyal to her duties.
A Living Legacy In Social Memory
Sung in courtyards, village fairs, temple grounds, and other communal gatherings, these poems grew out of an oral-performative tradition. Local idioms, proverbs, rustic humor, and vivid descriptions of fertile landscapes were used to fill the verses, to give them a rooted, earthy aroma.
“মিছা বাণী, সেঁচা পানি কতক্ষণ রয়?”
“Michha baani, sencha pani kotokkhon roy?”
(False words and sprinkled water, how long will they remain? )
(How long tilak made of water can remain on a forehead/ how long a rock can remain suspended if thrown in empty space)
(Ray, 2022)
The cathartic effects of these Mangalkavyas due to the tragedies faced by the protagonists who belong to the same social strata as them, surge the poems’ popularity among rural folks of Bengal. Moreover, these ritualistic recitations were thought to bring protection and prosperity to the audiences, besides harnessing moral lessons and an ideal code of conduct. In the contemporary scenario, the ritual centrality of these poems has suffered a lot. However, in some rural places, abridged pala/jatra (play) performances are organised upon fulfilment of a vow.
An adapted jatra performance on Manasamangal
A Shasthimangal pala gaan ( ecitation and singing long narrative verses) organised for the welfare of kids.
Such local festivals and performances with their distinct storytelling from place to place, are generally associated with the beginning of a new work or simply for the well-being of the family ( example: Sitala Mangal – about the goddess of disease-epidemics, Shasthi Mangal- about the goddess of childbirth and fertility).
Mostly non-canonical in nature, the performances of these folk epics do not require any scripture-related permission or ceremonies, as both the audience and the deities belong to the rural strata of society. Unlike Ramayana and Mahabharata, the gods here do not directly interfere in manmade affairs. Rather, they stay hidden and prefer to test their devotees.
Conclusion
These unique folk epics reflect how storytelling transformed worship into lived experiences. By bringing deities down to earth and weaving their presence into the struggles of the common masses, these poems turned faith into a shared cultural performance. They are not merely devotional praises; they bridge faith and survival. Their literal and cultural value still hold important places to performers and scholars, who approach them as repositories of folklore, social history, and cultural heritage. Their everlasting presence in memory shows that they are not relics of the past, but timeless voices that shaped Bengal’s unique identity and imagination.
BIO: Debashrita Dash has completed her post graduation in English Literature from Ravenshaw University. A lectiophile and amateur writer, she has always liked delving deep into literature; with an additional interest in Jharkhand in ancient histories. Her fondness for folk tales and narratives got a boost during her period of school internship in Jharkhand.
References:
BHOWMICK, BASANTA. “From oral to visual: The transmission of Mangal Kavya through multimodal folk art in Bengal.” August 10 2025. https://share.google/E7EAFgn9hCqET0xQJ. Accessed 18 August 2025.
CHAKRABORTY, GHANARAM. “Shri Dharmamangal.” Jogesh Chandra Basu, Kolkata, 1883. Internet Archive. https://share.google/g4fKDjcdxE8sribk8. Accessed 17 August 2025.
CHAKRAVARTI, KAVIKANKAN MUKUNDA. “Chandimangal.” Penguin India, March 2015.
CHATTERJEE, KUMKUM. “Goddess Encounters: Mughals, Monsters and the Goddess in Bengal.” Modern Asian Studies, vol. 47, no. 5, 2013, pp. 1435–87. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24494217. Accessed 4 August 2025.
DE, DOEL. “Mangal Kavyas in the Socio-Cultural Scenario of Early Medieval and Medieval Bengal: A Historical Retrospect.” PANCHAKOTesSAYS, Vol-15, No.-1, May 2024, pp. 49-55.https://share.google/wYJdaB65dhWQtBwAk. Accessed 8 August 2025.
